{"investigation":{"slug":"euler-v1","entity_name":"Euler V1","trust_score":10,"severity_base":null,"score_modifier":0,"confidence":1,"status":"published","content_type":"investigation","summary":"Euler Finance V1 was a permissionless DeFi lending protocol on Ethereum that launched in December 2021 and was exploited for approximately $197 million on March 13, 2023, in what was the largest DeFi hack of that year. The attack exploited a missing health check in the donateToReserves function introduced in EIP-14, despite the codebase having undergone multiple external audits. In a highly unusual outcome, the pseudonymous attacker known as 'Jacob' returned all recoverable funds by April 3, 2023, with the total recovered value reaching approximately $240 million due to ETH price appreciation during the recovery period.","sections":[{"content":"Euler Finance was founded in 2021 by Michael Bentley (CEO), Jack Prior, and Doug Hoyte, with Bentley holding a research background from Oxford University. The protocol launched on Ethereum mainnet in December 2021 and was designed as a permissionless lending platform, allowing users to list nearly any ERC-20 token as collateral — a key differentiator from gated competitors such as Compound and Aave. Euler Labs raised external funding to support protocol development. The governance token, EUL, has a fixed maximum supply of 27,182,818 tokens, with allocations to users (25%), Euler Labs shareholders (25.85%), team members (20.65%), and partners (9.67%). By early 2023, Euler V1 had grown to hold hundreds of millions of dollars in total value locked across DAI, USDC, staked ETH (stETH), and wrapped Bitcoin (WBTC). The protocol received multiple external security audits from firms including Sherlock and Omniscia prior to the March 2023 exploit.","heading":"Background","sources":[{"url":"https://tokenterminal.com/resources/interview/interview-with-euler-finance-ceo-michael-bentley","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.gate.com/learn/articles/what-is-euler-finance-all-you-need-to-know-about-eul/5605","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://messari.io/project/euler-finance","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3}],"severity":"medium"},{"content":"On March 13, 2023, an attacker exploited Euler Finance V1 for approximately $197 million across multiple assets: approximately $136 million in staked ETH (stETH), $34 million in USDC, $19 million in wrapped Bitcoin (WBTC), and $8.7 million in DAI. The root cause was a missing health (insolvency) check in the donateToReserves() function, which had been introduced in EIP-14 — a protocol upgrade audited by WatchPug via Sherlock in July 2022. The function allowed users to donate their eToken (collateral) balances to the protocol reserve without verifying whether the resulting position remained solvent. The exploit proceeded as follows: the attacker received initial gas funding from Tornado Cash, then borrowed approximately $30 million in DAI via a flash loan from Aave. The attacker deposited $20 million into Euler to receive eDAI tokens, then used the protocol's leveraged borrowing to amplify the position. By calling donateToReserves() without triggering a health check, the attacker reduced their own collateral to zero while retaining outstanding debt tokens (dTokens), creating an artificially insolvent position. A second attacker-controlled account then self-liquidated the first, claiming a liquidation bonus greater than the total losses from the donation, resulting in a net profit. The attack was executed across at least six flash loan transactions. A front-running MEV bot (address: 0x5F259D0b76665c337c6104145894F4D1D2758B8c) also extracted value during the attack. The primary attacker wallet was identified as 0xb66cd966670d962C227B3EABA30a872DbFb995db. One exploit transaction hash is 0x62bd3d31a7b75c098ccf28bc4d4af8c4a191b4b9e451fab4232258079e8b18c4, recorded on Etherscan at 09:04:23 UTC on March 13, 2023. Euler Labs moved swiftly to block the vulnerable module and paused the protocol following detection.","heading":"The $197M Attack","sources":[{"url":"https://www.theblock.co/post/219196/euler-finance-flash-loan-attacked-for-an-estimated-197-million","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-03-13/defi-s-euler-finance-hit-by-197-million-hack-experts-say","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.chainalysis.com/blog/euler-finance-flash-loan-attack/","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.certik.com/resources/blog/4iSrYY6HoaYxk1aKyjFb5v-euler-finance-incident-analysis","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.cyfrin.io/blog/how-did-the-euler-finance-hack-happen-hack-analysis","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.zellic.io/blog/euler-finance-exploit-analysis/","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://blocksec.com/blog/euler-finance-incident-the-largest-hack-of-2023","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3}],"severity":"medium"},{"content":"Blockchain data provides a detailed record of the exploit and its aftermath. The primary exploit transaction (0x62bd3d31a7b75c098ccf28bc4d4af8c4a191b4b9e451fab4232258079e8b18c4) is publicly visible on Etherscan and shows the movement of 73,347 ETH at 09:04:23 UTC on March 13, 2023. The attacker's primary wallet (0xb66cd966670d962C227B3EABA30a872DbFb995db) and an associated exploiter contract (0xb2698c2d99ad2c302a95a8db26b08d17a77cedd4) are both labeled and traceable on Etherscan. Initial gas funding for the attack was sourced from Tornado Cash, the OFAC-sanctioned mixing service, though this alone is not definitive evidence of a sanctioned actor's involvement. On March 17, 2023, the attacker sent 100 ETH to a wallet previously attributed by the U.S. Treasury's OFAC to North Korea's Lazarus Group (linked to the Ronin Bridge/Axie Infinity hack). This transaction temporarily raised concerns about state-sponsored involvement. However, on-chain analysts later assessed this as likely a red herring or attempted misdirection; the Lazarus Group entity subsequently sent an on-chain message to the Euler attacker in what security researchers described as a phishing attempt to steal the attacker's credentials. The attacker's subsequent voluntary return of funds — behavior inconsistent with known Lazarus Group operations — further undermined the North Korea attribution hypothesis. On-chain communications between Euler Labs and the attacker were conducted via Ethereum transaction calldata throughout the recovery period.","heading":"On-Chain Evidence","sources":[{"url":"https://etherscan.io/tx/0x62bd3d31a7b75c098ccf28bc4d4af8c4a191b4b9e451fab4232258079e8b18c4","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://etherscan.io/address/0xb2698c2d99ad2c302a95a8db26b08d17a77cedd4","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.coindesk.com/business/2023/03/21/hacker-vs-hacker-north-koreans-attempt-to-phish-euler-exploiter-of-200m-in-crypto-experts-say","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://cryptoslate.com/north-korean-lazarus-group-tries-to-phish-euler-exploiter/","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.coinbase.com/blog/euler-compromise-investigation-part-1-the-exploit","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3}],"severity":"medium"},{"content":"In a development described as extraordinary within the DeFi security community, the attacker began voluntarily returning stolen funds within days of the exploit. Euler Labs' recovery strategy involved a combination of public pressure, on-chain and off-chain negotiations, a $1 million reward offer for information leading to the attacker's identification (announced March 14), and a 10% retention bounty offer (approximately $19.7 million) for the return of the remaining 90%. The attacker, who communicated using the pseudonym 'Jacob' via email addresses including a Protonmail address, issued an on-chain apology and stated an intent to return all funds. The timeline of returns was as follows: approximately 3,000 ETH were returned on March 18; a major tranche of 51,000 ETH (approximately $90 million) followed on March 25; further tranches of approximately 7,000 ETH and $10 million in DAI were transferred in subsequent days. On April 3, 2023, Euler Labs announced that all recoverable funds had been returned. Due to ETH price appreciation during the three-week recovery window, the total value recovered amounted to approximately $240 million, exceeding the original $197 million stolen. The attacker's true identity was never publicly confirmed. The Euler Labs team published an account of the recovery process in a blog post titled 'War and Peace: Behind the Scenes of Euler's $240M Exploit Recovery,' documenting the negotiation strategies employed.","heading":"Hacker Returns Funds","sources":[{"url":"https://www.coindesk.com/business/2023/04/03/euler-says-all-recoverable-funds-stolen-in-200m-hack-have-been-returned","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.coindesk.com/tech/2023/03/28/hacker-behind-200m-euler-attack-apologizes-returns-millions-in-ether-dai-to-protocol","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.theblock.co/post/224705/euler-hacker-returns-funds","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.euler.finance/blog/war-peace-behind-the-scenes-of-eulers-240m-exploit-recovery","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://fortune.com/crypto/2023/04/06/how-an-elite-team-pressured-a-hacker-to-return-200m-he-stole-from-defi-platorm-euler/","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://decrypt.co/125373/euler-finance-exploiter-returns-recoverable-funds-200m-hack","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3}],"severity":"medium"},{"content":"Following the exploit and fund recovery, Euler Labs undertook an extensive security overhaul before relaunching. Euler V1 was permanently deprecated. The team commissioned 31 additional security audits from firms including Certora, Omniscia, OtterSec, OpenZeppelin, and Trail of Bits, supplemented by a $1.25 million Cantina audit competition and a $3.5 million 'Capture the Flag' security competition run through Hats Finance, plus an ongoing bug bounty program. Euler V2 was announced in February 2024 and launched on Ethereum mainnet in September 2024 — approximately 18 months after the exploit. V2 was redesigned as a modular 'meta-lending protocol' built around the Euler Vault Kit (EVK) and Ethereum Vault Connector (EVC), replacing the monolithic shared-pool architecture of V1 with isolated vault-level risk management. The new design allows permissionless vault deployment while containing potential contagion between markets. Euler Labs CEO Michael Bentley subsequently stepped down from his role as the protocol refocused on institutional markets, according to reporting by The Defiant. A co-founder also reported losing approximately $3.8 million in EUL governance tokens due to a hardware failure, according to DL News.","heading":"Recovery & V2","sources":[{"url":"https://www.theblock.co/post/314655/euler-launches-v2-modular-defi-lending-protocol-following-hack","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://blockworks.com/news/euler-finance-exploit-comeback","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://thedefiant.io/news/people/euler-ceo-michael-bentley-steps-down","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.dlnews.com/articles/defi/euler-co-founder-lost-38m-worth-of-governance-tokens-after-hardware-failure/","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.ibtimes.com/exclusive-euler-labs-ceo-overcoming-exploit-re-emergence-security-first-v2-3741973","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3}],"severity":"medium"},{"content":"Euler V1 is permanently deprecated and no longer operational; users should have no active exposure to V1 contracts. The V1 exploit demonstrated that even a heavily audited codebase — Euler V1 underwent reviews by Sherlock, Omniscia, and other firms — can contain critical vulnerabilities in edge-case code paths. The specific vulnerability (missing health check in donateToReserves) was introduced in EIP-14 and was not caught by the July 2022 Sherlock/WatchPug audit, illustrating the limits of point-in-time audits for complex protocol upgrades. The full fund recovery was a positive outcome for affected users and is considered atypical for DeFi exploits at this scale; most comparable incidents result in permanent loss of funds. The attacker's identity remains unknown. The Lazarus Group attribution was assessed as unlikely based on behavioral evidence. For Euler V2, the protocol has undertaken substantially more rigorous security practices than V1, though no protocol can be considered risk-free. Users evaluating Euler V2 should treat it as a distinct entity from V1 and review its own audit record independently.","heading":"Risk Assessment","sources":[{"url":"https://medium.com/@omniscia.io/euler-finance-incident-post-mortem-1ce077c28454","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://olympixai.medium.com/eulers-197m-collapse-shows-why-invariants-matter-more-than-audits-451da9026e12","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://www.euler.finance/blog/securing-euler","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3},{"url":"https://cointelegraph.com/news/euler-finance-attack-how-it-happened-and-what-can-be-learned","name":"","type":"other","credibility":3}],"severity":"medium"}],"timeline":[{"date":"2020","event":"Euler Finance whitepaper published by founders including Michael Bentley.","source":"","date_original":"2020-01-01"},{"date":"2021","event":"Euler Finance testnet launched.","source":"","date_original":"2021-01-01"},{"date":"2021-12","event":"Euler Finance V1 launches on Ethereum mainnet.","source":"","date_original":"2021-12-01"},{"date":"2022-07","event":"WatchPug audits EIP-14 upgrade for Sherlock; audit does not identify the donateToReserves vulnerability.","source":"","date_original":"2022-07-01"},{"date":"2023-03-13","event":"Euler Finance V1 exploited via flash loan attack; approximately $197 million drained across DAI, USDC, stETH, and WBTC. Exploit transaction hash: 0x62bd3d31a7b75c098ccf28bc4d4af8c4a191b4b9e451fab4232258079e8b18c4.","source":""},{"date":"2023-03-13","event":"Euler Labs detects the attack and blocks the vulnerable module; protocol paused.","source":""},{"date":"2023-03-14","event":"Euler Labs announces $1 million reward for information leading to attacker identification and publicly offers attacker a 10% retention bounty (~$19.7M) to return remaining funds.","source":""},{"date":"2023-03-17","event":"Attacker sends 100 ETH to a wallet attributed by OFAC to North Korea's Lazarus Group, raising temporary state-actor attribution concerns.","source":""},{"date":"2023-03-18","event":"First return of funds: approximately 3,000 ETH (~$5.3M) transferred back to Euler.","source":""},{"date":"2023-03-21","event":"Lazarus Group-linked address sends on-chain phishing message to the Euler attacker, according to security researchers.","source":""},{"date":"2023-03-25","event":"Major return: 51,000 ETH (~$90M) returned by the attacker. Attacker using pseudonym 'Jacob' sends on-chain apology.","source":""},{"date":"2023-04-03","event":"Euler Labs announces all recoverable funds have been returned. Total recovered value: approximately $240 million (exceeding $197M stolen due to ETH price appreciation).","source":""},{"date":"2024-02","event":"Euler V2 announced following 31 additional security audits and extensive protocol redesign.","source":"","date_original":"2024-02-01"},{"date":"2024-09","event":"Euler V2 launches on Ethereum mainnet with modular Euler Vault Kit (EVK) and Ethereum Vault Connector (EVC) architecture.","source":"","date_original":"2024-09-01"}],"sources_used":[{"url":"https://tokenterminal.com/resources/interview/interview-with-euler-finance-ceo-michael-bentley","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20260513065951/https://tokenterminal.com/resources/interview/interview-with-euler-finance-ceo-michael-bentley","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-05-13T06:59:51+00:00"},{"url":"https://www.gate.com/learn/articles/what-is-euler-finance-all-you-need-to-know-about-eul/5605","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20260829151844/https://www.gate.com/learn/articles/what-is-euler-finance-all-you-need-to-know-about-eul/5605","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-08-29T15:18:44+00:00"},{"url":"https://messari.io/project/euler-finance","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":null,"credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":null},{"url":"https://www.theblock.co/post/219196/euler-finance-flash-loan-attacked-for-an-estimated-197-million","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":null,"credibility":3,"archive_error":"error:no-request","archive_status":"unarchivable","archive_timestamp":null},{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-03-13/defi-s-euler-finance-hit-by-197-million-hack-experts-say","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20240215165511/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-03-13/defi-s-euler-finance-hit-by-197-million-hack-experts-say","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2024-02-15T16:55:11+00:00"},{"url":"https://www.chainalysis.com/blog/euler-finance-flash-loan-attack/","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20260810181807/https://www.chainalysis.com/blog/euler-finance-flash-loan-attack/","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-08-10T18:18:07+00:00"},{"url":"https://www.certik.com/resources/blog/4iSrYY6HoaYxk1aKyjFb5v-euler-finance-incident-analysis","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20260830003849/https://www.certik.com/blog/4iSrYY6HoaYxk1aKyjFb5v-euler-finance-incident-analysis","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-08-30T00:38:49+00:00"},{"url":"https://www.cyfrin.io/blog/how-did-the-euler-finance-hack-happen-hack-analysis","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20260204050008/https://www.cyfrin.io/blog/how-did-the-euler-finance-hack-happen-hack-analysis","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-02-04T05:00:08+00:00"},{"url":"https://www.zellic.io/blog/euler-finance-exploit-analysis/","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20260610024926/https://www.zellic.io/blog/euler-finance-exploit-analysis/","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-06-10T02:49:26+00:00"},{"url":"https://blocksec.com/blog/euler-finance-incident-the-largest-hack-of-2023","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20260315205700/https://blocksec.com/blog/euler-finance-incident-the-largest-hack-of-2023","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-03-15T20:57:00+00:00"},{"url":"https://etherscan.io/tx/0x62bd3d31a7b75c098ccf28bc4d4af8c4a191b4b9e451fab4232258079e8b18c4","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20260107052632/https://etherscan.io/tx/0x62bd3d31a7b75c098ccf28bc4d4af8c4a191b4b9e451fab4232258079e8b18c4","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-01-07T05:26:32+00:00"},{"url":"https://etherscan.io/address/0xb2698c2d99ad2c302a95a8db26b08d17a77cedd4","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20260720161153/https://etherscan.io/address/0xb2698c2d99ad2c302a95a8db26b08d17a77cedd4","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-07-20T16:11:53+00:00"},{"url":"https://www.coindesk.com/business/2023/03/21/hacker-vs-hacker-north-koreans-attempt-to-phish-euler-exploiter-of-200m-in-crypto-experts-say","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":null,"credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":null},{"url":"https://cryptoslate.com/north-korean-lazarus-group-tries-to-phish-euler-exploiter/","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20260307121521/https://cryptoslate.com/north-korean-lazarus-group-tries-to-phish-euler-exploiter/","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-03-07T12:15:21+00:00"},{"url":"https://www.coinbase.com/blog/euler-compromise-investigation-part-1-the-exploit","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20250212080224/https://www.coinbase.com/blog/euler-compromise-investigation-part-1-the-exploit","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2025-02-12T08:02:24+00:00"},{"url":"https://www.coindesk.com/business/2023/04/03/euler-says-all-recoverable-funds-stolen-in-200m-hack-have-been-returned","name":"","type":"other","archive_url":"http://web.archive.org/web/20260727041944/https://www.coindesk.com/business/2023/04/03/euler-says-all-recoverable-funds-stolen-in-200m-hack-have-been-returned","credibility":3,"archive_timestamp":"2026-07-27T04:19:44+00:00"},{"url":"https://www.coindesk.com/tech/20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